[54] Greenberg rejected the Afroasiatic classification of languages that Meinhof had classified as "Hamitic" based on racial and anthropological data. Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. [92] Diakonoff argues that Proto-Afroasiatic syllables disallowed consonant clusters or vowels at the end of a syllable. [78] An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Subgrouping) - this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. [47] Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person"). [40] Scholars have proposed locations both in the Middle East and in Africa. [37][34] Only one Cushitic language, Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include Somali, Saho-Afar, Hadiyya, and Sidaama. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. Abstract The paper is a new contribution to revealing the Afro-Asiatic heritage in the lexicon of the Angas-Sura group of Chadic languages by means of interbranch comparison using a.o. [112] Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. [49], There there are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:[7]. The Proto-Afroasiatic Consonant System. The reconstructed consonants for Proto-Afro-Asiatic are p and b, t and d, and k and g. The Egyptian bw meaning place and the Semitic bi meaning in or from are believed to be from the reconstructed root *b- meaning foot or place (ELL, p.51). They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. p-Masa p-Lower Cross River It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. ; SC semantics: early beads were made of shell), (root of #48 + *c extend. p-South Bauchi of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. the ancient Egypto-Semitic evidence. p-Grassfields The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. [6], Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have at least five and as many as eight separate branches, with the five universally agreed upon branches consisting of the Berber (also called "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. p-Akokoid Bariba BLACK ATHENA The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization - V - $57.73. There is no general consensus over the location of the Urheimat, the original homeland from which began the migrations into the present locations of the speakers. *y: adjective suffix: 3. [103], A form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. 2.12. p-Songhay Root Structure Patterning in Proto-Kartvelian. [34] Cushitic does not appear to be related to the attested ancient languages known from its area, Meroitic or Old Nubian. p-Potou-Akanic [113] These rules also have a number of exceptions: Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation. This language family has now been renamed Afro-Asiatic, because this term is less culture specific (Dalby, p.6). [99] Lafofa, p-Afroasiatic West Semitic brought forth such languages as Canaanite, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic (EL, p.906). [130][164] In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *abaw/y- Meaning: a k. of plant Semitic: *abVw- 'reed, papyrus' Egyptian: wb 'root', cf. [192] Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. ), to get up to leave, start out, come or go forth, (Eg., Sem. [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. to different specific animals), (possible vowel reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Ch. Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. Jalaa and touches on external evidence from Afroasiatic cognate languages. Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. Proposed specific locations include the Horn of Africa, Egypt, the eastern Sahara, and the Levant. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. S. SC Sem. suff. Well-known Afroasiatic languages include Arabic, Ancient Egyptian, Somali, Tuareg, and Hausa. Linguistic guesstimates or phylogenetic speculation date the proto-language (and thus the homeland) within a wide range, from 15,000 to 6,000 years ago. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. [9] ( [12] Each component of this term was derived from the name of a Biblical son of Noah as detailed in the Book of Genesis: Semitic from his first-born son Shem, and Hamitic from his second son Ham (Genesis 5:32). [121] Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,[154] where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. [158] Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between perfective and imperfective verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic Urheimat; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant, the Sahara, or the Horn of Africa, and the view that it arose in the Arabian Peninsulahas also been common historically. [15] Hamitic was coined by Ernest Renan in 1855, to refer to languages that seemed similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. p-Igboid [20] Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch;[46] some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. WCh WOT "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. [156] It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;[157] the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). Pre-Proto-Semitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1989) Appendix 2. for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. [76], There is no consensus where the original homeland (Urheimat) of the first Afroasiatic speakers was located. Continue Reading 5 Brian Collins [33] Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. [101][a] The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;[99] they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. E-V13. If you are not satisfied with 225345861639 innovation: narrowing of meaning to tr. p-Heiban p-Ring Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). innovation: addition of *b extend., imputing meaning 'to count'), to show, bring to (ones) notice or attention, (Ch., Berber, and Eg. 1995. [72] Earlier, the first scholar to question to existence of "Hamitic languages" was Marcel Cohen (1924),[9] while skepticism was also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann (1920s and '30s). The prefixes ti and it mean she. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago (12 to 18 kya ), that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. innovation: derivation of v. 'to sleep' by addition of *n non-fin. in *n, as also in #210) 324. < v. in #918 by V > VV; occurrence of PSC *ee (or *e?) Vol.1. to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. Allan Bomhard's own reconstructions of Proto-Afroasiatic roots (and phonology) seem to be biased toward Proto-Indo-European and Nostratic roots . Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). p-Central Khoisan innovation: addition of *w inchoative to stem), (root #866 with *-u- tr. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 June 2016 Alan S. Kaye Article Metrics Save PDF [136] These so-called "internal a" or "broken" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. [41] In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. Berkeley: University of California Press. See . p-Guang p-Benue-Congo In this interpretation, a contrast existed between. [54] The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his book Die Sprache der Hamiten (1912). New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. C. [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. It is very difficult to reconstruct ancient Proto-Afroasiatic (PAA) vocabulary, and still more difficult to reconstruct a common morphosyntax. [150] Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. p-Bantu (Swadesh list) p-Mande (p-W. Mandep-Mandekanp-Niger-Voltap-S. Mande) as denom. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 01:29. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. ref. [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. [167] These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies. p-Bua in East Africa. 4 This was Hodge's term for the ancestral proto-language of Proto-Afroasiatic and Proto-Indo-European based on Proto-Lislakh *lis- 'language' + *laxwos 'people'. ; *m > /n/ ([])/_*x), (Sem., Eg. Retard. [197], There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. [127] These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. ), (Eg., Sem. There are approximately 400 Afroasiatic languages, either living or recorded but extinct. [6][7], with the latter two having fallen out of favor in English but still seeing frequent usage in other languages, such as German. 3 The Phonemes of English - A. Cohen 1971-07-31 I gladly take this opportunity to convey my heartfelt thanks to those who have guided me on my way as an p-Chadic A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. The "t-stem" may be reflected in some forms in Hausa; however may also derive from a language internal development and has no cognates elsewhere in Chadic. p-Talodi [182], Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. [165] This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. Dalby, Andrew. . Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1994. p-Omotic The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. Upload your video About the author Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. Amdang shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. Defaka innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. innovation: generalization of pl. [77] Roger Blench writes that the debate has "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high civilization". [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. [48] Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, Western Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. [75] Proponents of an African origin of Afroasiatic assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic African hunter-gatherers,[76] arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. [128] Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,[80] but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order. For these versions, common words found in both Dolgopolsky (2008) and Bomhard (2018) are used, with Nostratic roots shared at least by Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Semitic, whenever possible. Dictionary of Languages. V. V. ven. [117] Christopher Ehret proposed a five vowel system with long and short a, e, o, i, and u. Benfys title was later inverted to make Hamito-Semitic but over time racial connotations were applied to this name (Voegelin, p.13). [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. Oko In the above model, Taforalt draws about half of their ancestry (you can call this ANA) from a population that also (likely through a sister population) contributes the . Bomhard postulates that from Proto-Afroasiatic (henceforth PAA), Chadic was the first to break off. Archaeologists and anthropologists have long viewed the Bible as mankind's best guide to prehistoric religion, however, archaeologist Klaus Schmidt had no reason to . [171][172] In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants. BLACK ATHENA: THE Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication, - $16.27. p-Fula-Sereer Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. Among the countries included in this language family are: Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, Algeria, and Ethiopia. The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System. [81] Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not indicate a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. It is, rather, a comparison of Proto-Indo-European with Proto-Afroasiatic. p-Jukunoid He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. [164] Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. Item Weight : 11.2 ounces Dimensions : 5.75 x 0.75 x 9 inches Best Sellers Rank: #1,696,866 in Books ( See Top 100 in Books) #2,811 in Comparative Religion (Books) Customer Reviews: 3 ratings Videos Help others learn more about this product by uploading a video! [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. Laal innovation: meaning shift, from avoiding per se to feeling a need or reason to avoid), to wear out, be used up, cease to function, (Eg., Cush., Ch. p-Agaw [109] Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation.[110][111]. The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. common genetic origin of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic differ considerably from the assumptions made in other works on . innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. I.2.1. infix [also tonal shift as found in Chadic cases]), (this root is included because #871 following derives from it), (sing. [181] Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. : *itsim-), (2nd root shape: possible old tr. [23] In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;[24] since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. suff. innovation: narrowing of meaning to loud kinds of response), (2nd shape: stem + *r n. Linguistics 450 Kujarge Great variety is incorporated in one family and this makes Afro-Asiatic an interesting topic of study. p-Ron New York: Elsevier, 1977. tr. sing. [71] In the end, Meinhof's classification included languages from every family in Africa that is recognized by modern linguistics. p-Idomoid as EL). [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. p-Gbe (Fongbe) Sandawe p-Upper Cross River The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. [191], The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. [149], A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. [109] Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. [145] Edward Lipiski refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are . Bijogo Therefore the root is considered ktb. When looking for roots it is important to remember that early Semitic only had consonants and vowels had to be inferred from the context (Atlas, p.78-79). Semitic speakers moved into the Fertile Crescent and "emerg[ed] into history" by bringing Akkadian (a Semitic language) into what is now Iraq, a previously Sumerian-speaking area (Dalby ,p6). Afroasiatic is generally considered to be comprised of the language families Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic, and Semitic. Shabo ; Eg., Sem. [88], Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. Olukumi The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic ), also known as Hamito-Semitic, [3] or Semito-Hamitic, [4] and sometimes also as Afrasian or Erythraean, [5] are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara / Sahel. (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. [188] Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one," "two," and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand". While this is not the first attempt to demonstrate that Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic are genetically related, it is the first to use the radical revision of the Proto-Indo-European consonantal system proposed by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze, Paul J. Hopper, Additionally, Joseph Greenberg argued that "Hamitic" has racial connotations, and that the name "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. innovation: integration of *t dur. (abbrev. [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [77], Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found Meredith Holt reflex), (root #723 + *x extend. [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel.
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